--TAMMINENI ANANDARAO,
M.A(ENGLISH-AU),M.A(ENGLISH-KU), B.Ed.,
cell no: 9985904483
There are 26 alphabet in English language. They are:
CAPITAL LETTERS
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
SMALL
LETTERS
a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s
t u v w x y z
WORD
A group of meaningful letters is called a WORD.
E.g. Boy, girl, school, book, king etc.
SENTENCE
A group of meaningful words which makes complete sense is
called a SENTENCE.
E.g. 1)He is a boy.
2)She is
clever.
KINDS
OF SENTENCE
There are mainly four kinds of sentences.
They are:
1) Assertive sentences
2) Imperative sentences
3) Interrogative
sentences
4) Exclamatory sentences
I) ASSERTIVE SENTENSES:-
Assertive sentences make statements.
E.g. 1)They go to school every day.
2)He likes sweets.
*Note: - These sentences start with a subject and end
with a full stop.
II)
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES:-
Orders, requests, and wishes come under this group.
E.g. 1) ‘Get out’.
-2-
2) ‘Give me your pen, please’.
*Note: - These sentences start with a main verb and
don’t have subjects.
III)
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES:-
All questions come under this group.
E.g. 1) What is your name?
2) Do you
like sweets?
Note: - These sentences should have question marks at
the end.
INTERROGATIVE sentences are again divided into
two kinds. They are:
1) WH questions
2) YES or NO questions
I) WH questions:-
Questions start with WH are called WH questions. They
invite sentence type answers.
WH Question words:- what, where, when, how, why, who,
whose, which etc..
E.g. 1)What is
your name?
2) How
are you?
II) YES or NO questions:-
Questions start with helping verbs are called YES or NO
questions. They invite answers like ‘YES’or’NO’.
1) Are you going?
2) Will you come with me?
IV)
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES:-
Sentences,express
sudden feelings like happiness, surprise,sadness etc
are called Exclamatory
sentences.
Eg.1)What a
beautiful flower it is !
2)Alas! I
lost it.
3)Hi ! we
won the match.
Note:- These sentences have exclamatory marks (!).
-3-
SUBJECT
Noun or Pronoun given prominence in a sentence can be
called a subject.
E.g. Rama/ goes to school every day.
Subject=Rama
PREDICATE
The rest of the part in a sentence except subject can
be called PREDICATE.
E.g. Rama/ goes to school every day.
Predicate=goes to school every day.
OBJECT
The least prominent Noun or Pronoun in the sentence can
be called OBJECT.
E.g. 1) I teach grammar.
Object: grammar
2) Grammar is taught by me.
Object: me
PARTS OF SPEECH
There are 8 parts of speech in English.
1)NOUN 2) PRONOUN 3) VERB 4) ADVERB 5) ADJECTIVE 6) PREPOSITION 7)CONJUNCTION 8)INTERJECTION
NOUN
Noun gives names.
E.g. Boy, seetha, book etc.
KINDS
OF NOUN
Noun can be divided into 5 kinds. They are:
1) Common noun
2) Proper noun
3) Abstract noun
4) Collective
noun
5) Material noun
-4-
1) COMMON NOUN:-
Nouns used in the sense of general are called Common
nouns.
E.g. Boy, girl, king, book etc.
2) PROPER NOUN:-
Nouns used in particular are called Proper noun.
E.g. Rama, seetha, Shivaji, Ramayanam etc.
3) ABSTRACT
NOUN:-
Nouns which are felt and invisible ,are called Abstract
nouns.
Eg. Happiness,honesty,kindness etc.
4) COLLECTIVE
NOUN:-
A unit contains two or more than two are called
Collective noun.
Bunch, bundle, Army etc.
5) MATERIAL
NOUN:-
Nouns related to material are called Material noun.
E.g. Iron, gold, brass etc.
NOUN
– NUMBER
They are two
numbers to the noun. They are :
1)Singular number
2)Plural number
Selected examples :
Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Boy
|
boys
|
Bus
|
buses
|
Story
|
stories
|
Wife
|
wives
|
Man
|
men
|
Fish
|
fish, fishes
|
Sheep
|
Sheep
|
Syllabus
|
syllabi
|
Brother-in-law
|
Brothers-in-law
|
ox
|
oxzen
|
Etc………..
-5-
COUNTABLE
NOUN –UNCOUNTABLE NOUN
COUNTABLE
NOUN: - Nouns which can be counted are called the
countable nouns.
E.g. Books, pens etc.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN:- Nouns which cannot be
counted, are called the uncountable nouns.
Eg. Soap, paper, water etc.
NOUN – GENDER
They
are four genders for the noun. They are:
1)Masculine gender
2)Feminine gender
3)Neuter gender
4) Common gender
1)
MASCULINE GENDER:-
Nouns related to male gender come under this group.
E.g. King, boy, man, etc.
2)
FEMININE GENDER:-
Nouns related to female gender come under this group.
E.g. Queen, girl, female etc.
3) NEUTER GENDER:-
Nouns which are lifeless come under this group.
Eg.
Rock, chair, pen etc.
4)
COMMON GENDER:-
Nouns used in common, come under this group.
Eg. Singer,
writer, painter etc.
PRONOUN
Words used in the place of nouns called pronouns.
-6-
E.g. I – me,
mine, my, myself
WE – us, our, ours, ourselves
YOU – you,
your, yours, yourself, yourselve
HE – him, his, himself
SHE – her,
hers, herself
IT - it, its, itself
THEY – them, their, theirs etc……
PRONOUN –PERSONS
They are 3 persons as for as pronoun is concerned. They are:
PERSONS
|
SINGULAR
|
PLURAL
|
I
|
I
|
we
|
II
|
you
|
you
|
III
|
He,she,it
|
they
|
VERB
Verb is a word
denotes action.
E.g. eat, take, write ,do etc.
KINDS
OF VERB
Verb can be divided into two kinds. They are:
1)Helping verbs
2) Main verbs
HELPING VERBS
Helping Verbs help main verbs in making sentences.
E.g. 1) she is learning English.
2) Do you
like music?
HELPING
VERBS = 24.
AUXILIARIES = 12 MODALS = 12
BE – is, am, are, shall - should
Was, were
will - would
HAVE – has,
had can - could
DO – does, did
may - might
-7-
Must, need, dare, used to, ought to.
MAIN
VERBS
Main Verbs can make sentences of their own.
E.g. 1) I go to school every day.
2) She went to vizag yesterday.
VERB FORMS
Every Main
Verb has 5 forms. They are:
1)
PRESENT FORM (V1)
2)
PAST FORM (V2)
3)
PAST PARTICIPLE FORM (V3)
4)
PRESENT PARTICIPLE FORM (V4)
5) PRESENT FORM TO III PERSON SINGULAR (VS)
Sl
no.
|
Present
(V1)
|
Past
(V2)
|
Past participle
(V3)
|
Present participle
(V4)
|
Present to
III person singular
(Vs)
|
1)
|
Write
|
wrote
|
written
|
writing
|
writes
|
2)
|
Go
|
went
|
gone
|
going
|
goes
|
3)
|
Come
|
came
|
come
|
coming
|
comes
|
4)
|
Read
|
read
|
read
|
reading
|
reads
|
5)
|
Give
|
gave
|
given
|
giving
|
gives
|
6)
|
Take
|
took
|
taken
|
taking
|
takes
|
7)
|
Teach
|
taught
|
taught
|
teaching
|
teaches
|
8)
|
Stand
|
stood
|
stood
|
standing
|
stands
|
9)
|
Sit
|
sat
|
sat
|
sitting
|
sits
|
10)
|
Bring
|
brought
|
brought
|
bringing
|
brings
|
11)
|
Speak
|
spoke
|
spoken
|
speaking
|
speaks
|
12)
|
Tell
|
told
|
told
|
telling
|
tells
|
13)
|
Ask
|
asked
|
asked
|
asking
|
asks
|
14)
|
Say
|
said
|
said
|
saying
|
says
|
15)
|
Drive
|
drove
|
driven
|
driving
|
drives
|
16)
|
Learn
|
learned
|
learned
|
learning
|
learns
|
17)
|
Punish
|
punished
|
punished
|
punishing
|
punishes
|
18)
|
Do
|
did
|
done
|
doing
|
does
|
19)
|
Make
|
made
|
made
|
making
|
makes
|
20)
|
Use
|
used
|
used
|
*NOTE:- Some Helping verbs (axillaries
only) sometimes act as main verbs.
Eg. I)A. He is
drinking coffee. ( is – Helping
verb)
B. He is
a boy.
( is – Main verb )
-8-
II)A. They have taken books.
( have – Helping verb)
B. They have
books. (Have – Main verb)
TRANSITIVE VERB – INTRANSITIVE VERB
Transitive Verb:- A verb which requires an object is
called Transitive Verb (T.V).
Rama killed
Ravana. (T.V.)
He drinks milk every day. (T.V.)
Intransitive Verb :- A verb which doesn’t require an object is
called Intransitive Verb (I.V).
I go to school. (I.V.)
She slept on the bed. (I.V.)
NOTE:- Some verbs always remain as
Transitive Verbs, some verbs as
Intransitive verbs. But many verbs
sometimes act as Transitive
Verbs, sometimes as Intransitive verbs.
e.g.
Always Transitive
|
Always Intransitive
|
Sometimes Transitive,
sometimes Intransitive
|
bring
|
go
|
Sing
|
like
|
look
|
Write
|
remove
|
appear
|
play
|
take
|
fall
|
Drink etc……,
|
1)Rama took books. (T.V.)
2)I go to school. (I.V.)
3)He sings songs. (T.V.)
4)He sings sweetly. (I.V.)
……..etc.,
ADVERB
Adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives and themselves.
E.g. She runs fast. (Modifies verb)
She runs very
fast. (modifies itself)
NOTE: - Many Adverbs end with
‘LY’. E.g. Slowly, suddenly,greatly, etc.
ADJECTIVE
Adjectives denotes the
quality of a noun or a pronoun.
E.g.
Good, tall, kind etc.
PREPOSITION
Preposition
tells the relation among the parts of speech.
E.g. To, at,on,in,from etc.
CONJUNCTION
Conjunction combines two words or
two sentences.
Eg.1) Rama and Krishna are good.(combines
two words)
2)Rama came and Krishna went. (combines two sentences)
and, that, when, while, so, because
etc are some of the conjunctions
INTERJECTION
Words express sudden deep feelings
(happiness, wonder, sadness) are called Interjections.
Eg. Alas! O! Hi! Etc.
TENSES
Tenses can mainly be divided into 3
kinds. They are :
1) PRESENT TENSE
2) PAST TENSE
3) FUTURE TENSE
The above each tense is again
divided into 4. They are :-
PRESENT TENSE
|
PAST TENSE
|
FUTURE TENSE
|
|
1)
|
Simple present
|
Simple past
|
Simple future
|
2)
|
Present continuous
|
Past continuous
|
Future continuous
|
3)
|
Present perfect
|
Past perfect
|
Future perfect
|
4)
|
Present perfect continuous
|
Past perfect continuous
|
Future perfect continuous
|
TABLE
Sl.no
|
TENSE
|
STRUCTURE
|
EXAMPLE
|
Words Used
With
TheTense
|
1)
|
Simple
present
|
V1 or
Vs
|
I teach grammar
He teaches grammar
|
every, daily, often, sometimes always,usually, frequently
etc.
|
2)
|
Present
Continuous
|
is/am/are+V4
|
I am teaching grammar.
They are teaching grammar.
|
Now, at present etc.
|
3)
|
Present
perfect
|
have/has+V3
|
I have taught grammar.
He has taught grammar.
|
Just, just now, so far, yet etc.
|
4)
|
Present
perfect continuous
|
have/ has+ been+V4
|
I have been teaching grammar.
He has been teaching grammar.
|
since,
for, how long etc.
|
5)
|
Simple past
|
V2
|
I taught grammar.
|
Yesterday, last, then, at the time etc
|
6)
|
Past
continuous
|
was/were+V4
|
I was teaching grammar.
They were teaching grammar.
|
While, when etc.
|
7)
|
Past perfect
|
had+ V3
|
I had taught grammar.
|
Before, when , already etc.
|
8)
|
Past perfect
continuous
|
had+ been+ V4
|
I had been teaching grammar
|
|
9)
|
Simple
future
|
shall/will+V1
|
I shall teach grammar.
He will teach grammar.
|
Tomorrow, next, soon, coming etc.
|
10)
|
Future
continuous
|
shall/ will+ be+ v4
|
I shall be teaching grammar .
He will be teaching grammar.
|
|
11)
|
Future
perfect
|
shall/ will+ have+ v3
|
I shall have taught grammar.
He will have taught grammar.
|
By this time etc.
|
12)
|
Future
Perfect continuous
|
shall/will/have+been+ v4
|
I shall have been teaching grammar.
He will have been teaching grammar.
|
ARTICLES
Articles are 2.
They are:
1) Definite article
2) Indefinite article
1) Definite
article :-
Definite article is ‘THE’.
THE’ is used—
1)Before
common nouns (singular and plural)which already mentioned
e.g., The boy, The books etc.
2)Before
oceans, seas, rivers etc.
e.g. The Indian ocean, The Bay of Bengal, The
Godavari etc.
3)Before
the superlative degree
E.g. The largest, The cleverest etc.
4)Before the unique things
e.g. The Earth, The Moon etc.
5)With comparative degree
e.g. The more you work, The more you
gain.
6)Before the popular names
e.g. The Red Fort, The Vivekananda
Memorial Rock etc.
7)Before the proper nouns used for
comparison
e.g. The Harichandra rose to talk.
8)Before the names of world famous holy
books
E.g. The Ramayana,The Mahabharatha etc.
9)Before a singular noun which represents a
whole class
e.g. The man is a social animal.
10)Before an adjective to indicate people
The poor(the poor people),The rich(the
rich people)
11)Before the ordinals
e.g. the first, the second, the
third etc.,
12)before musical
instruments
e.g the flute, the harp, the violin etc,
‘THE’ is
NOT used--
1)Before most proper nouns
E,g.
Raju,Asia,India,Vishakhapatnam,Mount Everest etc.,
2)Before languages
e.g. Telugu,English,Hindi etc.,
3)Before
school, temple, college, university, hospital, prison,
when they are used for their primary
purpose
e.g. I go to
school every day.
She visits temple on Sundays.
4)Before names of relations
e.g. father,
mother,brother etc.,
The indefinite article :-
The indefinite articles are ‘A’ and ‘AN’.
The ‘A’ :-
The indefinite article ‘A’ is used
before a singular common noun starts with a consonant sound.
e.g. a university, a year, a book ,a
one rupee note etc.
The ‘AN’:-
The indefinite article ‘AN’ is used
before a singular common noun starts with a vowel sound.
e.g. an MP, an
hour, an egg, an apple etc.
QUESTION TAGS
Question
tags are used for confirmation.
Model-I
(With
helping verbs)
1)Rama is a boy, isn’t he?
2)she cann’t sing, can she?
3)Seetha will come, won’t she?
4)The
story is not interesting, is it?
5)
Veena has given it, hasn’t she?
Model-II
(with main verbs)
1)Raju speaks English, doesn’t he?
2)They like music, don’t they?
3)I took books, didn’t I?
SPEACIAL MODELS
1)I am a teacher, aren’t I?
2)I am not a teacher, am I?
3)Let’s go to cinema, shall we?
4)Have it, will you?
5)Somebody has taken, haven’t
they?
6) Ravi, you have got it,
haven’t you?
Note:-the subject of the question tag is always a
pronoun, never a noun.
THE
VOICE
There are two voices:
1)
ACTIVE VOICE
2) PASSIVE VOICE
1)
ACTIVE VOICE (A.V):- In the Active
voice ,the agent (doer) will be given more focus.
Subject & agent(doer) are one and same in active voice.
e.g. Raju sings songs. (here, who sings is
more important than what is sung).subject =Raju,
agent(doer)=Raju
Rama killed Ravana.(here,who killed is
more important than who was killed).subject = Rama, agent(doer) = Rama
2) PASSIVE VOICE (P.V):- In the
Passive Voice, the affected will be given more focus.
Subject & agent (doer) are not one and same.
e.g. Songs are sung by Raju.(here,what
is sung is more important than who sings).subject = songs, agent(doer) = Raju
Ravana was killed
by Rama.(here, who was killed is more
important than who killed).subject = Ravana, agent(doer)= Rama.
INTERCHANGE OF THE VOICE
CHANGES IN PRONOUNS
A.V
|
P.V
|
A.V
|
P.V
|
I
|
me
|
he
|
him
|
We
|
us
|
it
|
it
|
You
|
you
|
They
|
them
|
she
|
her
|
* * *
|
* * *
|
TABLE
S.No
|
THE MODELS
|
ACTIVE VOICE
|
PASSIVE VOICE
|
1)
|
Simple present
|
I teach grammar.
V1 or Vs
|
Grammar is taught by me.
is/ am/are+V3
|
2)
|
Present continuous
|
I am teaching grammar.
Is\am\are+V4
|
Grammar is being taught by me.
Is/am/are+being+V3
|
3)
|
Present perfect
|
I have taught grammar
Have/ has+V3
|
Grammar has been taught by me.
Have/has+been+V3
|
4)
|
Simple past
|
I taught grammar
V2
|
Grammar was taught by me.
was/were+V3
|
5)
|
Past continuous
|
I was teaching grammar.
Was/were+V4
|
Was/were+being+V3
|
6)
|
Past perfect
|
I had taught grammar.
Had+V3
|
Grammar had been taught by me.
had+ been+V3
|
7)
|
Simple Future
|
I shall teach grammar.
Shall/ will+ V1
|
Grammar will be taught by me.
shall/ will+be+V3
|
8)
|
Model 1 (Let)
|
Open the door.
|
Let the door be opened.
|
9)
|
Model 2 (request)
|
Open the
door,please.
|
You are requsted to open the door.
|
10)
|
Model 3
|
someone killed it.
|
It was killed.
|
11)
|
Interrogative model 1
|
Who killed Ravana?
|
By whom was
Ravana killed?
|
12)
|
Interrogative model 2
|
Are you
singing a song?
|
Is a song being sung by you?
|
13)
|
Interrogative model 3
|
When did you write it?
|
When was it written by you?
|
*NOTE:-There is no Passive voice for an
Active voice sentence which does not have an object.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
CHANGES IN THE TENSE
(When the Reporting verb is in the Past tense)
Direct
speech
Indirect speech
1)simple Present tense(V1 or Vs) 1)The Simple past tense(V2)
e.g. Go or goes e.g. went
2)am/is
2)was
3)are
3)were
4)have/has
4)had
5)The Simple past
tense(V2) 5)The Past perfect tense
V2
had+V3
e.g. went
e.g. had gone
6)was/were
6)had been
7)will
7)would
8)shall
8)should
9)may
9)might
10)can
10)could
11)must
11)had to
CHANGES IN THE SOME WORDS (in any
tense)
1)now/just
1)then
2)ago 2)before
3)today
3)that day
4)tomorrow 4)the
next day
5)yesterday
5)the previous day
6)tonight
6)that night
7)this
7)that
8)these
8)those
9)here
9)there
10)thus
10)so
11)hence
11)thence
12)last night 12)the previous night
CHANGES IN SOME PRONOUNS (in any tense)
Direct speech
|
Indirect Speech
|
||
singular
|
Plural
|
||
I
|
he
|
she
|
|
we
|
they
|
||
You(subject)
|
he
|
she
|
they
|
You(object)
|
him
|
her
|
them
|
my
|
his
|
her
|
|
me
|
him
|
her
|
|
us
|
them
|
||
our
|
their
|
||
ourselves
|
themselves
|
||
your
|
his
|
her
|
Their etc..
|
INTERCHANGE OF DIRECT (D.S) AND
INDIRECT SPEECH (I.S)
I) ASSERTIVE SENTENSES(Direct
to Indirect Speech)
The points to be noted:-
1)’said’ becomes ‘said’
2)’said to’ becomes ‘told’
3)that
is used to combine the two parts
e.g. 1) He said, “I am going to vizag tomorrow.” (D.S)
He said that he was going to
vizag the next day. (I.S)
2)She said to him,”I shall teach you this“. (D.S.)
She told him that she would teach him that. (I.S.)
3)I said to her,”I bring it for you.” (D.S.)
I told her that I brought it for her. (I.S.)
4)He said to me,”you
are clever”
(D.S.)
He told me that I was clever. (I.S.)
5) Rama said,”I went to school yesterday.” (D.S.)
Rama said that he had gone to school the previous day.(I.S.)
II)IMPERATIVE SENTENCES(Direct
to Indirect speech)
Points to be noted:-
1)’said’ or ‘said to’ becomes-
a)’ordered’
or ’commanded’(order)
b)’requested’(request)
c)asked or told(normal)
d)suggested(suggestion)
e)advised (advice) etc.,
2)’to’
or ‘not to’ (for don’t) is used to combine two parts.
e.g.1) Krishna said to
Radha,’Give me your pen,please.’(D.S)
Krishna requested Radha to give him her
pen.(I.S)
2)The S.I said to the thief, ’Don’tell lies.’ (D.S)
The S.I ordered the
thief not to tell lies.(I.S)
3)She
said to him,’come quickly’.(D.S)
She asked him to come quickly.(I.S)
4)The doctor said to her,’Take medicine regularly’.(D.S)
The doctor advised her to take medicine regularly.(I.S)
5)He said to her,’Welcome’.(D.S)
He welcomed her. (I.S)
III)’WH’ QUESTIONS(Direct to Indirect)
Points to be noted:-
1)’said’ or ‘said to’ becomes ‘asked
2)nothing is used to combine two parts
e.g.1)He said to her,’Why are
you weeping?’(D.S)
He asked her why she was weeping.(I.S)
2)She said to him,’How do you go?” (D.S)
She
asked him how he went. .(I.S)
3)Raju said to Radha,”What did you want?” (D.S)
Raju asked Radha what she had wanted. .(I.S)
4)Rama said to Seetha,”Where does she live?” (D.S)
Rama asked Seetha where she
lived. .(I.S)
5)She said to me,”When do you wake up?” (D.S)
She
asked me when I woke .(I.S)
IV)’YES’ or ‘ NO’ QUESTIONS:-
Points to be noted:-
1)’said’ or ‘said to’ becomes ‘asked’.
2)’if’/’whether’ used to combine two parts.
e.g.1)She said to him,’Are you going now?’ (D.S)
She asked him if/whether he was going then. (I.S)
2)He said to her, ‘Do you like
sweets?’ (D.S)
He asked her if/whether she liked sweets. .(I.S)
3)Rama said to Seetha,’Did you
complete it?’ (D.S)
Rama asked Seetha if/whether she had
completed it. .(I.S)
4)He said to her,’Does he go to school?’ (D.S)
He asked her if/whether he went to school. .(I.S)
V) EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES:-
Points
to be noted:-
1)’said’ becomes ‘exclaimed’
2)’said to’ becomes ‘exclaimed to’
3)’that’ is used to combine two parts
e.g. 1)She said, ‘What a beautiful flower it is !.’ (D.S)
She exclaimed that it was a very beautiful
flower. .(I.S)
2)He said to her,’Hi! We have won the
match’. (D.S)
He exclaimed happily to her that
they had won the match. .(I.S)
3)She
said,’Alas! I have lost it.’ (D.S)
She exclaimed sadly that she had lost it. .(I.S)
SPECIAL
MODELS(Direct to Indirect speech)
I)The teacher said to students,’The
Earth moves round the Sun’. (D.S)
The teacher told students that the
Earth moves round the Sun. (I.S)
II)He says ,’It is
true.’
(D.S)
He says that
it is true. (I.S)
III)She says to
him,’I have taken it.’ (D.S)
She tells him
that she has taken it. (I.S)
IV)He will say,’It is
difficult.’
(D.S)
He will say
that it is difficult. (I.S)
V)She said,’Let us
go to school’.
(D.S)
She said that
they should go to school. (I.S)
VI)He said to her,’Are
you going to school?’. She said,’Yes’. (D.S)
He asked her if/whether she was
going to school. She replied in the positive. (I.S)
VII) She said to
him,’Can you sing a song?.’ He said,’No’. (D.S)
She asked her if/whether he could sing a song.
He replied in the negative. (I.S)
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
This topic is related to
‘ADJECTIVE.’ Every ADJECTIVE has three forms.They are:
1)POSITIVE DEGREE (A1)
2)COMPARATIVE DEGREE(A2)
3)SUPERLATIVE DEGREE (A3)
POSITIVE
|
COMPARATIVE
|
SUPERLATIVE
|
Strong
|
stronger
|
strongest
|
Beautiful
|
more beautiful
|
most beautiful
|
Difficult
|
more difficult
|
most difficult
|
Good
|
better
|
best
|
Bad
|
worse
|
worest
|
Up
|
upper
|
upper most
|
Unique
|
……….
|
…………
|
excellent
|
…………
|
……………
|
Bottom
|
……
|
bottom most
|
Etc……
I) POSITIVE DEGREE (P.D) :- When there is no comparison, there is
Positive degree.
e.g.
Rama is a good boy.
II) COMPARATIVE DEGREE (C.D) :-When there is comparison between two
persons or two things, there is Comarative degree.
e.g. Rama is better than Krishna.
III)SUPERLATIVE DEGREE (S.D):-When
there is comparison among more than two, there is Superlative degree.
e.g. Rama is the best boy in the class.
INTERCHANGE OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON
MODEL – I
A)Rama
is as good as Krishna. (P.D)
Krishna is not better than Rama. (C.D)
B)The
Sun shines better than the Moon. (P.D)
The
Moon does not shine so good as the Sun. (C.D)
MODEL – II
A)No other girl is so
beautiful as Vijaya in the room. (P.D)
Vijaya is more beautiful than any other
girl in the room. (C.D)
Vijaya is the most beautiful girl in the room. (S.D.)
B)Shivaji was more greater than any other king
in India. (C.D)
Shivaji was the
greatest king in India. (S.D.)
No other king was so great as Shivaji in
India. (P.D)
C)Hyderbad is the largest city in A.P. (S.D.)
Hyderbad is larger than any other city
in A.P. (C.D)
No other city in A.P. is so large as
Hyderbad.
MODEL – III
A)Very
few books are as famous as the Bhagvadgitha. (P.D)
The
Bhagvadgitha is more famous than many/most other books. (C.D)
The
Bhagvadgitha is one of the most famous books. (S.D.)
B)Raju is
taller than many/most other students in the class. (C.D)
Raju is one of the tallest students in the
class.
(S.D.)
Very few students are as tall as Raju in
the class. (P.D)
C)India is one of
the biggest countries in the world. (S.D.)
India is bigger
than many/most other countries. (C.D)
Very few countries are as big as India. (P.D)
MODEL –
IV(NEGATIVE)
A)Some
kings were at least as strong as Akbar. (P.D)
Akbar was not stronger than some other kings. (C.D)
(or)
Some kings were not less strong than
Akbar.
(C.D)
Akbar was not the strongest of all kings. (S.D.)
B)The Krishna is not
longer than some other rivers. (C.D)
(or)
Some rivers are not less long than the
Krishna. (C.D)
The Krishna is not the longest of all
rivers. (S.D.)
Some rivers are at least as long as the
Krishna. (P.D)
C)Vani is not the
cleverest of all students. (S.D.)
Some
students are at least as clever as Vani. (P.D)
Vani is not cleverer than some other
students. (C.D)
(or)
Some students are not less clever than
Vani. (C.D)
SYNTHESIS
/ COMBINATIONS
PHRASE
A group of words which gives
some sense is called ‘PHRASE.’ A
Phrase doesnot have subject, verb and object.
e.g.1)on the wall 2)in the
pocket 3)out of the matter….. etc.,
CLAUSE
CLAUSE may
have subject, object and verb. It sometimes gives complete sense, sometimes
does not.
CLAUSE can be divided into two kinds: They
are:
1)MAIN CLAUSE
2)SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
1) MAIN CLAUSE:- Main clause is nothing
but a sentence. It gives full sense. It
does have a finite verb and may have subject,object etc..
e.g. Rama who drives the car is a boy.
‘Rama is a boy’– main clause(it gives full sense. ‘is’ is used here as a finite verb).
2)SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:-This clause doesnot give full sense and have
finite verb, though it may have subject, object etc...
e.g. Rama who drives the car is a boy.
‘who drives the car’–
subordinate clause(it does not give full sense though it has subject, verb and object. It requires something to give full meaning. ‘drives’
is used here as a non finite verb.)
Sentences
can be divided into three kinds. There
are:
1) SIMPLE
2)COMPLEX
3)COMPOUND
I) SIMPLE SENTENCE :-
A simple sentence has only one main clause (one finite verb).
e.g. Rama is a good boy.
(finite verb)
II) COMPLEX SENTENCE :- A complex sentence has one main clause (one finite verb) and
one or many subordinate
clauses.
e.g. Rama ,who drives the
car , is a boy.
Rama
is a boy.(main clause – ‘is’ used here as a finite verb)
Who drives the car (subordinate clause – ‘drives’ is used here as
a non-finite verb)
III) COMPOUND SENTENCE :-
A
compound sentence has two or more than two main clauses.
e.g. Rama is a boy and he
drives the car .
Rama is a boy(main clause – it gives
full sense. ‘is’ is used here as a finite verb)
He drives the car (main clause – it also gives full sense.‘drives’ is
also a finite verb)
INTERCHANGE OF SYNTHESIS
USEFUL
TABLE
SIMPLE
|
COMPLEX
|
COMPOUND
|
Inspite of, despite
|
Though,although,even if,even though
|
But, yet, still, neverthless
|
On account of, owe to, due to
|
Because, since, as
|
So,therefore,hence,
|
V+ing/ Having+V3
|
when
|
and
|
I)Inspite of
poverty, he is honest.( Simple) (main clause-he is honest)
Though he is poor, he is
honest. (Complex)(main clause-he is honest, subordinate clause- though he is poor)
He is poor,but(he is) honest.
(Compound )(main clause-he is honest, main clause-he is poor)
II) On account of illness,he could not attend school yesterday. (
Simple)
As/since he is ill he could not attend school
yesterday. (Complex)
He could not attend school yesterday because he is ill. (Complex)
He
is ill,so he could not attend school yesterday. (Compound )
III)Seeing the lion,she ran away. ( Simple)
When she saw the lion, she ran
away. (Complex)
She saw the lion and (she) ran away. (Compound )
IV)The Sun, having disappeared, the Moon appeared. ( Simple)
When
the Sun disappeared, the Moon appeared. (Complex)
The Sun disappeared and the Moon appeared. (Compound )
IF
CLAUSE
I TYPE
(If+V1 or Vs---will/shall+V1)
1)If you work hard,you will get good marks.(chance to get good marks)
2)If she
comes,I shall meet her.(chance to meet her)
II TYPE
(If+V2---would+V1)
1)If I were a bird,I would fly.(I am not a bird, I won’t fly)
2)If
he had money,he would buy a car.(he doesn’t have money, he won’t buy a car)
III TYPE
(If+had+V3---would+have+V3)
1)If you had worked hard,you would have got
good marks.(you did not work hard. You did not get good marks.
2)If she had come,I would have met
her.(she did not come.I did not meet her)
SO – THAT
I)SO…THAT…NOT
– TOO…TO:-
a)He is so weak that he cannot walk.
He is too weak to walk.
b)She is too short to touch the roof.
She is so short that she cannot touch the roof.
II)SO…THAT:-
a)He is extremely
clever.He can get I rank.
He is
so clever that he can get I rank.
b)She
is very tall. She can win the match.
She is so tall that she can win the match.
III)SO
THAT:- a)He is
studying Russian. He wants to study in Russia.
He is studying Russian
so that he can study in Russia.
b)She left early. She
did not want to be late.
She left early so that
she would not be late.
‘IF’…’UNLESS’…’OR’/’ELSE /OTHERWISE’…’TO+V1’…’IN
ORDER TO’
If you work hard, you will pass.
Unless you work hard you will fail.
You work hard or/else/otherwise you
will fail.
Work hard to pass.
Work hard in order to pass.
‘NEITHER…NOR’ – ‘EITHER….OR’
He has neither a car nor a bike.
Be neither a borrower nor a lender.
He may have either cash or a cheque.
‘NOT ONLY…BUT ALSO’ –‘ AS WELL AS’ –‘
AND’ - ‘BOTH’
He is not only clever but also honest.
He is clever as well as honest.
He is clever and honest.
He is both clever and honest.
………………..
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